Introduction Hematuria is defined as the presence of at least five red blood cells (RBCs)/high-power microscope field (HPF) in three successive centrifuged specimens taken at least seven days apart. Classification of Hematuria According to the Source Glomerular hematuria Glomerular hematuria is a significant sign of renal dysfunction. Non-glomerular hematuria Extrarenal hematuria According to the Visibility … Read more
Introduction Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a chronic progressive disorder caused by the degeneration of nerve cells in the part of the brain called the substantia nigra, which controls body movement. Incidence Types of Parkinson’s Disease The types of Parkinson’s disease are as follows: Stages of Parkinson’s Disease Hoehn and Yahr’s scale divides symptoms of Parkinson’s … Read more
Introduction The retrograde flow of urine (regurgitation) from the urinary bladder to the upper urinary tract (kidney collecting system) is known as vesicoureteral reflux (VUR). Incidence Classification of Vesicoureteral Reflux Primary VUR Secondary VUR Causes of Vesicoureteral Reflux Primary VUR Lack of maturation of the vesicoureteral junction (VUJ) Congenital anomalies of the VUJ Secondary VUR … Read more
Introduction Uterine prolapse is a condition characterized by the descent of the uterus and cervix, within or outside the vaginal canal from the vaginal introitus due to weak or damaged pelvic supporting structures. The uterus is supported by muscles and ligaments which help maintain the normal anteverted and anteflexed position of the uterus. Support of … Read more
Introduction Hydronephrosis is defined as dilatation and distension of one or both kidneys’ renal collecting systems due to blockage of urine outflow distal to the renal pelvis (i.e., ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra). Incidence Causes of Hydronephrosis The causes of hydronephrosis can be classified as intrinsic and extrinsic causes. Intrinsic causes Extrinsic causes Renal stones … Read more
Introduction Pyelonephritis refers to a type of urinary tract infection (UTI) caused by bacteria that ascend from the lower to upper ranges of the genitourinary system, such as the kidney. It is a bacterial infection in the kidney and renal pelvis- the upper urinary tract. An ascending UTI, which spreads from the bladder to the … Read more
Introduction Hypoglycemia is an urgent medical condition in which blood sugar (glucose) level is lower than the standard range, typically below 70 mg/dL (3.9 mmol/L). However, symptoms may occur if plasma glucose levels fall below 55 mg/dL (3.0 mmol/l). Hypoglycemia is often related to diabetes treatment. But other drugs and several conditions can cause low … Read more
Introduction Pyelogram is an x-ray procedure that uses radiopaque fluid to provide an image of the renal pelvis and urinary system. In other words, it is a radiographic examination of a renal pelvis following the injection of radiopaque material through the ureter or into a vein. Type of pyelogram Intravenous pyelogram Indication Contraindications There is … Read more
Introduction Hepatitis C is a contagious liver disease that results from infection with the hepatitis C virus (HCV). HCV is a hepatotropic RNA virus that belongs to the family Flaviviridae. HCV causes progressive liver damage, which might result in liver cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Types of Hepatitis C Acute Hepatitis C Chronic Hepatitis C Incidence … Read more
Introduction Prostatitis is an infection or inflammation of the prostate gland that manifests as several syndromes with variable clinical characteristics. Prostatitis is described as microscopic inflammation of the prostate gland tissue and is a diagnosis that encompasses a wide variety of clinical disorders. Epidemiology Classification The International Prostatitis Collaborative Network and the National Institutes of … Read more